Showing posts with label öğretmen. Show all posts
Showing posts with label öğretmen. Show all posts

Sunday, July 29, 2018

Akademimizin Hali


Hakkı Yırtıcı, Gazete Duvar


YÖK’ün 2016 yılı verilerine göre, son 14 yılda akademisyen sayısı, yüzde 100’den fazla artmış ve 70 bin 12’den, 155 bin 216’ya çıkmış. Bu artışta, hükümetin “her ile bir üniversite” politikası ve her yıl yenileri açılan vakıf üniversitelerinin katkısı büyük. Ancak burada bir kısır döngü var; her açılan yeni üniversite ile beraber, öğrenci sayısı da doğru orantılı olarak hızla artıyor ve yetişmiş akademisyen ihtiyacı sürekli büyüyor.
Sorunun ciddiyetini anlayabilmek için, “akademisyen sayımız yüzde 100 arttı” diye övünmeyi ve kendi içimizdeki rakamlara bakmayı bırakıp, diğer ülkelerle bir karşılaştırma yapalım.
ABD’de her yıl 61 bin, Rusya’da 27 bin, Almanya’da 25 bin, Japonya ve İngiltere’de ise 17 bin doktora öğrencisi mezun olurken, Türkiye’de bu rakam 4 bin 500 ve asıl ihtiyacın 15 bin olduğu söyleniyor; yani, bu sayının en az üç katına çıkması gerekiyor. Ülkelerin nüfusuna göre, doktora yapmış insan sayısına bakıldığında ise durumun vahameti daha da iyi anlaşılıyor: Çin’de, her bin kişi başına 2.2, ABD’de 1.7, Avrupa Birliği’nde 1.5 doktora mezunu düşerken, Türkiye’de bu oran sadece 0.4.
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Bir akademisyen, öyle hemen, kolayca yetişmiyor. Lisans (4 yıl), yüksek lisans (2 yıl) ve doktora (4 yıl) eğitimi ile 10 yıl gerekiyor ki, özellikle de doktora süreci, aslında ek süreler ve uzatmalar ile yaklaşık 12 – 13 yılı bulur. Özgün bir doktora tezi yazmak kolay değildir. Fikirlerinizin zihninizde olgunlaşmasına, argümanlarınızın güçlenmesine ve literatüre hakim olmanıza çoğu zaman 4 yıl yetmez. Bu rakamların üstüne, doçent olmak için gereken ders verme deneyimi, çalışma ve yayın için bir 5 yıl ve profesör olmak için de, bir 5 yıl daha ekleyin. İşte karşınıza, en az 20 yılın sonunda, 50’li yaşlarına gelmiş, fikirleri ve verdiği dersleri olgunlaşmış, ulusal ve uluslararası yayınlar yapmış, yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri yönetmiş, jürilerde bulunmuş nitelikli bir akademisyen ancak çıkabiliyor.
YÖK’ün listesine göre, Türkiye’de, 6 Mayıs 2015 tarihi itibari ile 109’u devlet, 84’ü ise vakıf olmak üzere 193 üniversite bulunmaktaydı. 15 Temmuz 2016’dan sonra vakıf üniversitelerinin sayısı 69’a düştü ve bu üniversitelerde çalışan 2 bin 808 akademisyen işsiz kaldı. Son bir yılda, çıkarılan 6 KHK ile ise 117 farklı üniversiteden 5 bin 247 akademisyen ihraç edildi. Maalesef, kaçının kendi alanlarında tekrar iş bulabildiğini, kaçının mesleklerinden vazgeçip, geçinebilmek için başka işlere yöneldiği bilinmiyor.
Bugün, esas olarak, akademik dünyada yaşanan depremin, ağırlıklı olarak siyasi boyutu konuşuluyor; ama bunun sosyo-kültürel bir boyutu da olduğu ve toplumda üniversitelere ve akademisyenlere bakışın nasıl bir dönüşüm geçirdiği gerçeği pek ele alınmıyor. Televizyonda, sosyal medyada çıkan haberlerde, akademisyenlere yönelik suçlamalar arttıkça, bir zamanların saygın mesleği artık kuşkulu bir hale geldi. Bunun doğal bir uzantısı olarak da, toplum nezdinde eleştirel düşünce değersizleşti; bir konuyu derinlemesine bilmek anlamsızlaştı. Artık herkes, her konuda, iki satır okuyunca, kendini uzman sanıyor ve o konuda ahkam kesmekte bir sorun görmüyor. Asıl cehalet, bilmemek değil, bilmediğinin farkında olmamaktır.
Kendi deneyimlerimden biliyorum; elinde şimdiye kadar yaptığın çalışmaları içeren kalın bir dosya ile özel bir üniversitenin rektörünün ya da dekanının karşısına çıkan bir akademisyene, şimdiye kadar neler yaptığından önce ilk sorulan, FETÖ’cü ya da imzacı olup olmadığı. O sırada, karşısındaki meslektaşına yaptığı pervasızca saygısızlığın ya farkında değiller ya da buna aldırmıyorlar.
Bundan bir yıl önce, bana bu soruyu soran bir dekana, neden imzacıları işe almadıklarını sorduğumda, verebildiği tek cevap, “prensip olarak” oldu. Kötü reklam olmasından korkuyorlar. Ne de olsa işin içinde ticaret var, müşteri var, müşterinin parasını ödeyen aileler var. Sistemle uyumlu olmak lazım; çünkü eğitim sektöründe rekabet büyük, pastadan pay kapmak isteyen üniversite sayısı ise çok fazla.
Marx, zamanında ne demişti? Üretim araçlarına sahip olanlar (bu, ha fabrika olmuş, ha üniversite, fark etmez) ile olmayanlar (bu noktada, entelektüel proletarya demek daha doğru) arasındaki ilişki her zaman sömürü sistemine dayanır. Kapitalizmin kuralı ne idi? Masrafları kıs, kârı maksimize et. Üniversiteler, rekabet arttıkça, genelde birbirlerine benzeme eğilimindeler. Nitelik, çoğu zaman niceliğe kurban ediliyor.
Akademisyen başına düşen öğrenci sayısı, rekabet arttıkça, sürekli maksimize, eğitim için kullanılan mekanın metrekare cinsinden miktarı ise sürekli minimize ediliyor. Üniversitelerin kütüphaneleri göstermelik, sosyal imkanları ise ya hiç yok ya da yetersiz. Hangi akademisyene sorsanız, ağır ders yükünden, kalabalık sınıflara verilen derslerden ve çoğunlukla, okumak için eve taşımak zorunda kaldıkları sınav kağıtlarından, ders dışında yüklendikleri ve asli görevleri olmayan idari işlerin yoğunluğundan, haftada beş gün, 9 – 6 üniversitede bulunmak ve kart basmak zorunda olmaktan, daracık bir odayı en az iki meslektaşı ile paylaşmaktan ve kendi özel çalışmalarına zaman bulamamaktan yakınacaktır.
Akademisyenlerin, liselere gönderilerek, çalıştıkları üniversitede eğitimin ne kadar iyi olduğunu ya da tanıtım günleri adı altında, bir masanın arkasında, bütün gün, öğrencilerinin gözü önünde, gelen ailelere (çünkü parayı öğrenci adayı değil, aileler ödeyecek) yine çalıştıkları üniversitenin eğitiminin ne kadar iyi olduğunu anlatmaları ise ayrı bir utanç konusu. Yılda birkaç haftalığına, bir akademisyen değil pazarlamacı olmak zorundalar.
Üniversite yönetimlerine, bu da yetinmiyor. Liselerin müdürlerinin ve aslında öğrencilerine, üniversite tercihlerinde yardımcı olması beklenen rehber öğretmenlerin, lüks otellerin restoranlarında ağırlanmaları ya da lüks yatlarla Boğaz turlarına çıkarılmaları da bu işin bir parçası ve bu yapılan, hiç kimseye tuhaf gelmiyor. Rekabet koşulları içinde bu pazarlama yöntemi de kanıksanmış durumda.
Akademisyenlerin, konularında ne kadar yetkin olduklarının ise hiçbir önemi yok. Her an, yerlerinin başka biri tarafından doldurulabileceğinin farkındalar. Üniversite yönetimi için kalite önemli değil, o derse herhangi birinin girmesi yeterli. Bir üniversitede kadrolu çalışıp, geleceğini öngörebildiğin ve zihinsel enerjini derslerine, akademik yayın ve çalışmalarına verdiğin günler çok gerilerde kaldı.
Akademisyenlere mevsimlik işçi gibi davranılıyor. Yarı zamanlı (dışarıdan ders saat ücretli) çalıştırılmaları çok yaygın bir uygulama. Bir eğitim dönemi 14 haftadan oluşur; bir eğitim yılında ise 28 hafta vardır; geriye kalan 24 haftada nasıl geçineceklerinin endişesi içindeler. Kadrolu çalışanların durumu da çok farklı değil; onlar da tedirginler, gelecekleri hakkında. Üniversitelerin bünyesinde kadrolu görünen iki güncüler ve üç güncüler var. Bu, çoğunlukla doçent ve profesörlere uygulanıyor. Böylelikle daha ucuza geliyorlar. Her sözleşme yenileme tarihi ise bir belirsizlik. Şu ya da bu neden gösterilip, yönetimle uyumlu olmayanlar, her an işsiz kalabilir, yoksulluğun ve yoksunluğun pençesine düşebilirler. Ne çalıştıkları kurum ne de meslekleri ile bir bağ kurulmasına izin veriliyor, kendilerini hep bıçak sırtında hissediyorlar.
Eğitim, rakamlarla bu kadar nicelleştirilmişken, bir de her sene “fakültemizin değerli öğretim üyeleri” sözleri ile başlayan bir e-posta gelir. Öncelikle, sadece resmi yazışmalarda, kağıt üstünde değerlisinizdir. İnsanın içi burkuluyor. İstenen ise performansınızın değerlendirilmesidir. O sene, kaç saat derse girdiğiniz, ne tür etkinliklerde bulunduğunuz, yoğun idari işlerden fırsat bulup, kaç yayın yaptığınız sorulur.
Zaten sürekli notlanıyor olmanın tedirginliği vardır üzerinizde. Daha önce çalıştığım bir üniversitede, yeni performans kriterleri getirilmişti. Sadece bir maddesinden söz edeceğim. Akademisyen her sene öğrenciler tarafından eğitim kalitesi, bölüm başkanı tarafından da, iş arkadaşları ve yönetimle uyumlu çalışması üzerinden notlanacak, yani karneniz oluşturulacaktı. İnsanı, daha baştan suçlu gibi hissettiriyorlar. Eğer pragmatik biri iseniz, sorun değil. Öğrenciyi, derste çok zorlama ve notunu bol tut; yöneticilere de her zaman gülümse ve asla kendi fikrini söyleme.
İTÜ’de, mimarlık eğitimi aldığım yıllarda, bir hocam, ismi bende saklı, Taşkışla’da, onun atölyesinde iken, bizlere, yüksek sesle, “Her insan kendi istediği kadar mimar olur” der, sonra da sesini biraz alçaltarak “Bir de okulunun izin verdiği kadar” diye eklerdi. Sizler, mimar yerine kendi mesleklerinizin adını koyabilirsiniz.
İnsan, hocalarının sözlerini çok sonra anlarmış. Henüz, her köşe başında özel bir üniversitenin olmadığı ve isimlerini burada tek tek sayamayacağım bir sürü değerli hocamızın, gözlerinin içine baktığımız bir dönemde bile, meğer hocamız, bir acısını, öğrencileri ile paylaşıyormuş ve ben, bunu daha yeni kavrayabiliyorum.
Ya şimdi, biz akademisyenler neyin acısını çekiyoruz?
Her akademisyenin, ancak kendi okulunun izin verdiği kadar akademisyen olabildiği bir dönemde yaşamanın…
Peki, öğrencilere ve derslerin kendilerine ne oluyor?
Her dersin bir mahremiyeti vardır. Sınıfın kapısı kapandığı anda, akademisyen ile öğrenciler baş başa kalır. Artık bir akademisyen değil, öğrencilerin gözünde bir hocasınızdır. Bilgiyi sadece düz bir şekilde aktarmazsınız. Yıllar içinde geliştirdiğiniz kendine özgü bir anlatım biçiminiz vardır. Bunu, dersin daha iyi anlaşılması, dersi sıkıcı olmaktan kurtarmak, öğrencinin ilgisini çekebilmek ve öğrenci ile bir bağ kurabilmek adına yaparsınız.
Yaklaşık yirmi yıllık bir akademisyen ve hoca olarak, gözümün önünde öğrenci profili yavaş yavaş değişti. Artık daha ilgisizler, aralarında bağ kurabildiklerimin sayısında ciddi bir düşüş var. Tek beklentileri bir an evvel diploma almak. Sonrasına dair ise fazla bir düşünceleri yok. Aralarında babası ya da aileden biri müteahhit olanı azımsanmayacak kadar çok. Muhtemelen, okudukları bölüm, kendi tercihleri değil. Mezun olduklarında da, aile işinin başına geçecekler ve Türkiye’nin inşaat sektörüne dayalı ekonomisinin bir parçası olacaklar.
Bir arkadaşıma, bir defasında, penceremden görünen, üst üste yığılmış, sevimsiz binaları göstererek, bir mimar ve hoca olarak, onlara mezun olduklarında ihtiyaç duymayacakları bir “tasarım yapma bilgisi”ni aktarmaya çalıştığımı ve aslında “mış gibi” yaptığım hissine kapıldığımı söylemiştim. Bana dönüp, kendisinin de hukukçu olduğunu ve üniversitede hukuk felsefesi anlattığını hatırlatmıştı. O an, söyleyecek bir söz bulamadım, sustum.
Oysa 20’li yaşlarındalar; en meraklı ve kendilerini keşfetmeleri, tanımaları gereken yaş. Her zaman öğrencilerime, “Mesleği ile içsel bir bağ kuran, işini gerektiği gibi düzgün yapma etiğine sahip olan insandan korkmayın; çünkü bu, o kişinin, aynı şeyi insanlarla olan ilişkilerinde de yaptığı anlamına gelir” derim. Bu sözlerimi kaç kişi anlıyor, bilemiyorum. 
Kuşkusuz hepsi değil ama büyük bir çoğunluğu üniversiteye, okulun içinde açılmış marka kafelerde vakit geçirmek ve arkadaşları ile sohbet için geliyorlar. Herkes, sanki bir partiye gelircesine çok bakımlı ve süslü. Ellerinde cep telefonları, sürekli onlarla meşguller. Elinde bir kitap, not tutmak için bir defter, hatta kalemle gelen yok denecek kadar az. Dersin ilk 10 dakikasında, öğrencileri cep telefonlarından uzaklaştırmak ve sessize aldırmak için uğraşmak, dersin doğal bir parçası haline gelmiş durumda. Bir şeyi elde etmek, öğrenmek, mesleklerinin bir parçası yapmak için harcamaları gereken emek ve çabadan, bir konuyu derinlemesine bilmenin hazzından bihaberler.
Kontenjanı 100 kişi olarak belirlenmiş bir sınıfa ders anlattığınızı hayal edin. Aslında sınıf 80 kişilik, ama üniversite yönetimi de biliyor, hepsinin derse gelmeyeceğini. Dönem başı, ilk sordukları, “Hocam hazırladığınız sunumları ve ders notlarını verecek misiniz?” oluyor. Buna alışmışlar, alıştırılmışlar. Yoklama almıyorum. İstiyorum ki, 18 yaşını aşmış bireyler olarak, derse kendi istekleri ile katılsınlar. Ancak dönem boyu, ortalama 50 öğrenciye ders anlatıyorum. Bunların en az yarısının önünde ise ne bir kağıt ne de bir kalem oluyor. Bedenleri orada ama zihinleri başka yerde… Gerçekte, en fazla, 10 – 15 öğrenciyle göz teması kurarak ders anlatabiliyorum. Onlar da olmasa, boşluğa konuşuyormuş gibi hissedeceğim.
Bazen, inatla, neden not tutmadıklarını soruyorum. Bir cevapları yok, sadece sessizlik. Bir defasında, bir öğrenci “ben dersi dinliyor, sonra akşam internetten araştırıyorum” demişti. Derste anlattığımın, yıllar boyu, o konu üzerine okuyarak, düşünerek, kendi özgün yorumumla oluşturduğum bir bilgi olduğunun farkında değiller. Zaten, o öğrenciye, geçen hafta anlattığım dersten bir soru sorduğumda, cevabı, “geçen hafta yoktum” olmuştu.
Sadece bir hocaya değil, herhangi bir insana yalan söylemek bu kadar kolay olmamalı.
Lütfen sanmayın ki, sürekli öğrencilerden yakınan bir hoca klişesini burada tekrarlıyorum. Bu durumun, onlarla alakası olmadığını biliyorum. Hepsi de, bugün Türkiye’nin gelmiş olduğu siyasi ve sosyo-kültürel ortamın bir uzantıları. Onlar için, karşılarına çıkan her engel, en kolay yoldan, emek harcamadan aşılması gereken ve sonunda da bir an evvel köşeyi dönmeleri gereken basit bir sorun. Dedim ya, düşünce değersizleşti, değersizleştirildi bu ülkede.
Zaten, bir üniversitede işe girerken, ilk günden, aslında ne olduğunuz size hatırlatılır. Bir defasında, rektörün, ilk gün bana iki tavsiyesi olmuştu. Birincisi, sınav kağıtlarını ve tutanağını düzgün dosyalamam (çünkü bildiğim kadarıyla, YÖK denetçileri geldiğinde, esas olarak bunlarla ilgileniyorlar); ikincisi ise, öğrenci mesela derse, saat 10 yerine, 10’u 20 geçe gelmişse, öğrenciyi çok zorlamamam ve uyumlu olmamdı.
Evet, anahtar kelime bu; “uyumlu olmak”.
Öğrenciyi zorlamadığın, kendi sınırlarını keşfettirmeye çalıştırmadığın, öz farkındalıklarını arttırmayı denemediğin, kendi gibi düşünmeyenlere saygı duymalarını öğretmediğin, yönetimin yazılı olmayan ama zihinlerinde oluşturdukları müfredata uyduğun sürece sorun yok; aksi takdirde, bir an evvel halledilmesi gereken bir sorundan başkası değilsiniz.
Öğrenci de kaçınılmaz bir şekilde içinde bulunduğu toplumun siyasi ve kültürel ortamının bir uzantısı. Hoca, artık ağzından çıkan her kelimeyi dikkatlice seçmek ve kendine otokontrol uygulamak zorunda hissediyor. Komşunu ihbar etmenin tavsiye edildiği ve meşru görüldüğü bir ortamda, öğrenci tarafından her an yönetime şikayet edilebilirsiniz. Çünkü derste 271 kelimeden çok daha fazlasını sarf edeceksinizdir.
Bugün, bir öğrenci rahatlıkla, “anlattıklarınız, benim milli görüşlerimle uyuşmuyor” diyerek, sınıfı terk edebiliyor. Taraf olmadan, nasıl eleştirel düşünülebileceğini anlamıyorlar, anlamak istemiyorlar. Söyledikleriniz cımbızla seçilip, çarpıtılarak, bazen sesiniz ya da görüntünüz cep telefonuna kaydedilebilir, yönetime iletilebilir ve istifaya zorlanabilirsiniz.
Formül ne idi? Öğrenciyi zorlama, notunu bol tut. Yani, bugün, hocanın öğrencisinden korktuğu bir eğitim anlayışı üniversitelere hakim.

Lafı, daha fazla uzatmadan, son bir söz edeceğim: Öğrenciye, herhangi bir konuda,”neden böyle yapmadın, daha geçen ders söylemiştim” dediğimde, hemen hepsinden “unuttum” cevabını çok sık duyar oldum. Bu, onlar için gayet geçerli bir mazeret ve aslında ne dediklerinin farkında değiller. Aptal değiller ama çoğunun zihinleri bomboş. “Unuttum” diyen bir öğrencinin, gözlerinin derinliklerine baktığımda, gerçekten unuttuğunu anlıyorum ve işte o an, çok ürküyorum.


Bu yazı ilk kez Gazeteduvar haber sitesinde 'Ya geriye kalan akademisyenler' adıyla yayınlandı.

Sunday, May 6, 2018

Styles, Abilities and Multiple Intelligences



Research by cognitive scientists into the differences among students can shed light on this question, but before I get into that research, it is important to clarify whether I’m talking about differences in cognitive abilities or differences in cognitive styles. The definition of cognitive ability is straightforward: it means capacity for or success in certain types of thought. If I say that Sarah has a lot of ability in math, you know I mean she tends to learn new mathematical concepts quickly. In contrast to abilities, cognitive styles are biases or tendencies to think in a particular way, for example to think sequentially (of one thing at a time) or holistically (of all of the parts simultaneously). Abilities and styles differ in a few important ways. Abilities are how we deal with content (for example, math or language arts) and they reflect the level (that is, the quantity) of what we know and can do. Styles are how we prefer to think and learn.We consider having more ability as being better than having less ability, but we do not consider one style as better than any other style. One style might be more effective for a particular problem, but all styles are equally useful overall, by definition.

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Everyone can appreciate that students differ from one another.What can (or should) teachers do about that? One would hope we could use those differences to improve instruction.Two basic methods have been suggested. One approach is based on differences in cognitive style—that is, if one matches the method of instruction to the preferred cognitive style of the child, learning will be easier. Unfortunately, no one has described a set of styles for which there is good evidence. 

The second way that teachers might take advantage of differences among students is rooted in differences in abilities. If a student is lacking in one cognitive ability, the hope would be that she could use a cognitive strength to make up for, or at least bolster, the cognitive weakness. Unfortunately, there is good evidence that this sort of substitution is not possible.To be clear, it’s the substitution idea that is wrong; students definitely do differ in their cognitive abilities (although the description in Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory is widely regarded as less accurate than other descriptions).


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I admit I felt like a bit of a Grinch as I wrote this chapter, as though I had a scowl on my face as I typed “wrong, wrong, wrong” about the optimistic ideas others have offered regarding student differences. As I stated at the start of the chapter, I am not saying that teachers should not differentiate instruction. I hope and expect that they will. But when they do so, they should know that scientists cannot offer any help. It would be wonderful if scientists had identified categories of students along with varieties of instruction best suited to each category, but after a great deal of effort, they have not found such types, and I, like many others, suspect they don’t exist. I would advise teachers to treat students differently on the basis of the teacher’s experience with each student and to remain alert for what works.When differentiating among students, craft knowledge trumps science.

** 

Learning-style theories don’t help much when applied to students, but I think they are useful when applied to content.Take the visual-auditory-kinesthetic distinction. You might want students to experience material in one or another modality depending on what you want them to get out of the lesson; a diagram of Fort Knox should be seen, the national anthem of Turkmenistan should be heard, and the cheche turban (used by Saharan tribes to protect themselves against sun and wind) should be worn. The distinctions in Table 1 provide a number of interesting ways to think about lesson plans: Do you want students to think deductively during a lesson, or to free-associate creatively? Should they focus on similarities among concepts they encounter, or should they focus on the details that differentiate those concepts? Table 1 may help you to focus on what you hope your students will learn from a lesson and how to help them get there.

**

Every teacher knows that change during a lesson invigorates students and refocuses their attention. If the teacher has been doing a lot of talking, something visual (a video or a map) offers a welcome change.Table 1 provides a number of ways to think about change during the course of a lesson. If the students’ work has demanded a lot of logical, deductive thinking, perhaps an exercise that calls for broad, associative thinking is in order. If their work has required many rapid responses, perhaps they should do another task that calls for thoughtful, measured responses. Rather than individualizing the required mental processes for each student, give all of your students practice in all of these processes, and view the transitions as an opportunity for each student to start fresh and refocus his or her mental energies.


If you have felt nagging guilt that you have not evaluated each of your students to assess their cognitive style, or if you think you know what their styles are and have not adjusted your teaching to them—don’t worry about it.There is no reason to think that doing so will help. And if you were thinking of buying a book or inviting someone in for a professional development session on one of these topics, I advise you to save your money. 

If “cognitive styles” and “multiple intelligences” are not helpful ways to characterize how children differ, what’s a better way? Why do some children seem to breeze through mathematics while others struggle? Why do some children love history, or geography? The importance of background knowledge has come up again and again in this book. In Chapter One I argued that background knowledge is an important determinant of what we find interesting; for example, problems or puzzles that seem difficult but not impossible pique our interest. In Chapter Two I explained that background knowledge is an important determinant of much of our success in school. Cognitive processes (such as analyzing, synthesizing, and critiquing) cannot operate alone.They need background knowledge to make them work. 

Still, background knowledge is not the only difference between students.There is something to the idea that some students are simply really clever.

READ MORE:

Why Is It Hard to Make Students Think Like Experts?

Why Is It So Hard for Students to Understand Abstract Ideas?

Why Do Students Remember Everything That’s on Television and Forget Everything I Say?

Factual knowledge must precede skill
Why Don't Students Like School?


Friday, March 23, 2018

Why Do Students Remember Everything That’s on Television and Forget Everything I Say?


Your memory system lays its bets this way: if you think about something carefully, you’ll probably have to think about it again, so it should be stored.Thus your memory is not a product of what you want to remember or what you try to remember; it’s a product of what you think about.


**


Memory is the residue of thought. To teach well, you should pay careful attention to what an assignment will actually make students think about (not what you hope they will think about), because that is what they will remember. 


The Importance of Memory  


Every teacher has had the following experience: you teach what you think is a terrific lesson, full of lively examples, deep content, engaging problems to solve, and a clear message, but the next day students remember nothing of it except a joke you told and an off-the-subject aside about your family—or worse, when you say, struggling to keep your voice calm, “The point of yesterday’s lesson was that one plus one equals two,” they look at you incredulously and say, “One plus one equals two?” Obviously, if the message of Chapter Two is “background knowledge matters,” then we must closely consider how we can make sure that students acquire this background knowledge. So why do students remember some things and forget other things? Let’s start by considering why you fail to remember something. Suppose I said to you, “Can you summarize the last professional development seminar you attended?” Let’s further suppose that you brightly answer, “Nope, I sure can’t.”Why don’t you remember? 


**

If you don’t pay attention to something, you can’t learn it! You won’t remember much of the seminar if you were thinking about something else.

**


For material to be learned (that is, to end up in long-term memory), it must reside for some period in working memory—that is, a student must pay attention to it. Further, how the student thinks of the experience completely determines what will end up in long-term memory.


**


What Good Teachers Have In Common


Trying to make the material relevant to students’ interests doesn’t work. As I noted in Chapter One, content is seldom the decisive factor in whether or not our interest is maintained. For example, I love cognitive psychology, so you might think, “Well, to get Willingham to pay attention to this math problem, we’ll wrap it up in a cognitive psychology example.” But Willingham is quite capable of being bored by cognitive psychology, as has been proved repeatedly at professional conferences I’ve attended. Another problem with trying to use content to engage students is that it’s sometimes very difficult to do and the whole enterprise comes off as artificial. How would a math instructor make algebra relevant to my sixteen-year-old daughter? With a “real-world” example using cell phone minutes? I just finished pointing out that any material has different aspects of meaning. If the instructor used a math problem with cell phone minutes, isn’t there some chance that my daughter would think about cell phones rather than about the problem? And that thoughts about cell phones would lead to thoughts about the text message she received earlier, which would remind her to change her picture on her Facebook profile, which would make her think about the zit she has on her nose . . . ? So if content won’t do it, how about style? Students often refer to good teachers as those who “make the stuff interesting.” It’s not that the teacher relates the material to students’ interests—rather, the teacher has a way of interacting with students that they find engaging. Let me give a few examples from my own experience with fellow college-level teachers who are consistently able to get students to think about meaning.


Teacher A is the comedian. She tells jokes frequently. She never misses an opportunity to use a silly example. Teacher B is the den mother. She is very caring, very directive, and almost patronizing, but so warm that she gets away with it. Students call her “Mom” behind her back. Teacher C is the storyteller. He illustrates almost everything with a story from his life. Class is slow paced and low key, and he is personally quiet and unassuming. Teacher D is the showman. If he could set off fireworks inside, he would do it. The material he teaches does not lend itself easily to demonstrations, but he puts a good deal of time and energy into thinking up interesting applications, many of them involving devices he’s made at home. 


Each of these teachers is one to whom students refer as making boring material interesting, and each is able to get students to think about meaning. Each style works well for the person using it, although obviously not everyone would feel comfortable taking on some of these styles. It’s a question of personality. 


Style is what the students notice, but it is only a part of what makes these teachers so effective. College professors typically get written student evaluations of their teaching at the end of every course. Most schools have a form for students to fill out that includes such items as “The professor was respectful of student opinions,” “The professor was an effective discussion leader,” and so on, and students indicate whether or not they agree with each statement. Researchers have examined these sorts of surveys to figure out which professors get good ratings and why. One of the interesting findings is that most of the items are redundant. A two-item survey would be almost as useful as a thirty-item survey, because all of the questions really boil down to two: Does the professor seem like a nice person, and is the class well organized?  Although they don’t realize they are doing so, students treat each of the thirty items as variants of one of these two questions.


Although K-12 students don’t complete questionnaires about their teachers, we know that more or less the same thing is true for them.The emotional bond between students and teacher—for better or worse—accounts for whether students learn.The brilliantly well-organized teacher whom fourth graders see as mean will not be very effective. But the funny teacher, or the gentle storytelling teacher, whose lessons are poorly organized won’t be much good either. Effective teachers have both qualities. 


They are able to connect personally with students, and they organize the material in a way that makes it interesting and easy to understand.




READ MORE:

Styles, Abilities and Multiple Intelligences

Why Is It Hard to Make Students Think Like Experts?

Why Is It So Hard for Students to Understand Abstract Ideas?

Factual knowledge must precede skill

Why Don't Students Like School?

Tuesday, March 20, 2018

Factual knowledge must precede skill


I defined thinking as combining information in new ways.The information can come from long-term memory—facts you’ve memorized—or from the environment.


**


Thinking well requires knowing facts, and that’s true not simply because you need something to think about.The very processes that teachers care about most—critical thinking processes such as reasoning and problem solving—are intimately intertwined with factual knowledge that is stored in long-term memory (not just found in the environment).


**


Critical thinking processes are tied to background knowledge. The conclusion from this work in cognitive science is straightforward: we must ensure that students acquire background knowledge parallel with practicing critical thinking skills.


**


The phenomenon of tying together separate pieces of information from the environment is called chunking. The advantage is obvious: you can keep more stuff in working memory if it can be chunked.


**


So factual knowledge in long-term memory allows chunking, and chunking increases space in working memory.


**


A number of studies have shown that people understand what they read much better if they already have some background knowledge about the subject. Part of the reason is chunking.


**


Background knowledge allows chunking, which makes more room in working memory, which makes it easier to relate ideas, and therefore to comprehend. 


Background knowledge also clarifies details that would otherwise be ambiguous and confusing.


**

It’s worth noting that some observers believe that this phenomenon—that knowledge makes you a good reader—is a factor in the fourth-grade slump. If you’re unfamiliar with that term, it refers to the fact that students from underprivileged homes often read at grade level through the third grade, but then suddenly in the fourth grade they fall behind, and with each successive year they fall even farther behind.The interpretation is that reading instruction through third grade focuses mostly on decoding—figuring out how to sound out words using the printed symbols—so that’s what reading tests emphasize. By the time the fourth grade rolls around, most students are good decoders, so reading tests start to emphasize comprehension. As described here, comprehension depends on background knowledge, and that’s where kids from privileged homes have an edge.They come to school with a bigger vocabulary and more knowledge about the world than underprivileged kids. And because knowing things makes it easier to learn new things (as described in the next section), the gap between privileged and underprivileged kids widens.

**


Books expose children to more facts and to a broader vocabulary than virtually any other activity, and persuasive data indicate that people who read for pleasure enjoy cognitive benefits throughout their lifetime. I don’t believe it is quite the case that any book is fine “as long as they’re reading.” Naturally, if a child has a history of resisting reading, I’d be happy if she picked up any book at all. But once she is over that hump, I’d start trying to nudge her toward books at the appropriate reading level. It’s rather obvious that a student doesn’t gain much from reading books several grades below her reading level. I’m all for reading for pleasure, but there are fun, fascinating books at every reading level, so why not encourage age-appropriate materials? It’s just as obvious that a too difficult book is a bad idea.The student won’t understand it and will just end up frustrated.The school librarian should be a tremendous resource and ally in helping children learn to love reading, and she is arguably the most important person in any school when it comes to reading.


Sunday, October 30, 2016

Centering On the Best

This concept of centering on the best people may seem new and unfamiliar, yet it is one of the crucial differences between the best educators and the rest. Nurture the superstar students you have, and work to cultivate others. Keep your best, most well rounded students at the forefront when you make decisions. Your classes will be better off and your job will be more enjoyable!

**
Before making any decision or attempting to bring about any change, great teachers ask themselves one central question: What will the best people think?


Understanding High Achievers

High achievers hold themselves to lofty standards. They expect to succeed at everything they do and work exceedingly hard to do so. That is one reason they are so good. When high achievers have their shortcomings pointed out by someone else, they emotionally deflate. They are used to expecting tremendous things of themselves and they hate to let others down. High achievers put so much of themselves into what they do that any criticism, no matter how minor, can become a personal affront. Furthermore, if our assessment of their work does nothing but point out minor flaws in their achievements, they may take fewer risks the next time around.

If you ask high achievers about their own performance, they will be much more critical than you would ever dream of being.
**

No matter how much we push them, they are much harder on themselves. They don’t want to settle for less than their best. They don’t want to be told that a first draft is “fine,” even though it might be far better than another student’s third revision. On the other hand, they don’t want to be ignored. Great teachers understand how to give these students the kind of attention that keeps them moving forward under their own steam.


Perceptions Can Become Reality

As educators, we understand that perceptions can become reality. People who say, “This is the worst group of kids,” soon start to believe it. Eventually, they start to treat them that way and, unfortunately, the students will start to behave accordingly.


Respecting the students and the power of praise

Effective teachers treat everyone with respect, every day. Even the best teachers may not like all of their students, but they act as if they do. And great teachers understand the power of praise.

**
It’s not difficult to treat some people with respect, or even to treat most people with respect. It’s even possible to treat all people with respect quite a bit of the time. The real challenge is to treat everyone with respect every day. Each of us can remember at least one occasion in our professional lives when someone in a leadership role treated us inappropriately. No matter how long ago it was, or how often that person treated us well, we remember. The same thing is true in our schools. If just once in a month, or even once in a year, we choose to make a sarcastic comment or cutting remark to a student or colleague, we might as well have carved it in stone. They may pretend to have forgotten that moment, but they will never forget. What’s more, anyone else who witnessed it will probably remember, too.

**

To be effective, praise must be authentic, specific, immediate, clean, and private. 

Breadth of Vision

In studying and writing about leading educational change, I have made some interesting discoveries. For one thing, I have found that the greatest challenge is to get everyone—or almost everyone—on board. It might seem that simple logic would prevail. Demonstrate that a proposed change will benefit students, and we can then put it in motion with full support and willing participation. However, as we all know, that’s not what happens. Some people are quick to jump on any new bandwagon. (With all due respect and affection, I sometimes refer to them as, “The Lunatic Fringe.”) Others will more carefully probe and examine a proposal, try it out gradually, and in the end accept it wholeheartedly. But some stubbornly resist change of any kind. They work—or fight—to defeat it, even when it’s clearly better for students. Why does this happen? I have concluded that it all comes down to breadth of vision.

How Broad Is Your Vision?

Great Teachers!

Great Expectations

The variable is not what teachers expect of students. Many teachers of all skill levels have high expectations for students. The variable—and what really matters—is what teachers expect of themselves. Great teachers have high expectations for students but even higher expectations for themselves. Poor teachers have high expectations for students but much lower expectations for themselves. Not only that, they have unrealistically high expectations for everyone else as well. They expect the principal to be perfect, every parent to be flawless, and every one of their peers to hold them in incredibly high regard.

Perception can become reality

As educators, we understand that perceptions can become reality. People who say, “This is the worst group of kids,” soon start to believe it. Eventually, they start to treat them that way and, unfortunately, the students will start to behave accordingly.


Sarcasm and Yelling

When is sarcasm appropriate in the classroom?

You know the answer: Never. Then let’s never use it in our classrooms.

**

Who decides how many arguments you get into in a week?

The answer, of course, is that we do. We never win an argument with a student. As soon as it starts, we have lost. If their peers are watching, they cannot afford to give in. We would like to win the argument, but they have to win the argument. (Plus, I have always felt that in all student–teacher interactions, there needs to be at least one adult, and I would prefer that it be the teacher.)

**

Outside of a true emergency (“Watch out for the acid!”) when is an appropriate time and place for yelling?

Again, we know the answer is never. The students we are most tempted to yell at have been yelled at so much, why on earth would we think this would be effective with them? Therefore, we do not yell at students.

Effective teachers choose wisely from their bag of tricks.

Saturday, October 15, 2016

The Power of Expectations


How do the best teachers approach classroom management? What do they do differently? Here’s the answer in a nutshell: Great teachers focus on expectations. Other teachers focus on rules. The least effective teachers focus on the consequences of breaking the rules.

**
The teacher may have predetermined and stated consequences for misbehavior, but these are clearly secondary to the expectations. The key is to set expectations and then establish relationships so that students want to meet these expectations. Great teachers don’t focus on “What am I going to do if students misbehave?” They expect good behavior, and generally that’s what they get.

**
Students are experts at cost-benefit analysis: If I skip one hour of class, I’ll have to go to two hours of detention. Is it worth it? (How many of my buddies will be in detention?)


Monday, October 3, 2016

Value of Examining What Effective Teachers Do


We often hear that we can learn from anyone. From effective people, we learn what to do; from ineffective people, we learn what not to do. Although this advice contains a grain of truth, think about it: How much can we really learn from our ineffective colleagues about being an effective teacher or leader? We already know plenty about what not to do. Good teachers already know not to use sarcasm, not to yell at kids, not to argue with teens in front of their friends. We don’t need to visit an ineffective teacher’s classroom to learn this. But we can always reap good ideas from successful educators.

**
Educators who want to promote good teaching find value in examining what effective teachers do that other teachers do not.
**
One challenge in any profession is the ability to self-reflect accurately. Those who know how they come across to others and how others receive their behavior work more effectively. We all struggle to achieve this self-awareness, but all too often, we fall short. In the studies of principals described earlier, practically all of the principals thought they were doing a good job, but only some of them were right.

Sunday, December 28, 2014

Inverted-U Curves and Class Size


That’s what is called an inverted-U curve. Inverted-U curves are hard to understand. They almost never fail to take us by surprise, and one of the reasons we are so often confused about advantages and disadvantages is that we forget when we are operating in a U-shaped world.

Which brings us back to the puzzle of class size: What if the relationship between the number of children in a classroom and academic performance is not this:



or even this:



What if it’s this?



The principal of Shepaug Valley Middle School is a woman named Teresa DeBrito. In her five-year tenure at the school, she has watched the incoming class dwindle year by year. To a parent, that might seem like good news. But when she thought about it, she had that last curve in mind. “In a few years we’re going to have fewer than fifty kids for the whole grade coming up from elementary school,” she said. She was dreading it: “We’re going to struggle.”

***
Inverted-U curves have three parts, and each part follows a different logic. There’s the left side, where doing more or having more makes things better. There’s the flat middle, where doing more doesn’t make much of a difference. And there’s the right side, where doing more or having more makes things worse.

If you think about the class-size puzzle this way, then what seems baffling starts to make a little more sense. The number of students in a class is like the amount of money a parent has. It all depends on where you are on the curve. Israel, for example, has historically had quite large elementary school classes. The country’s educational system uses the “Maimonides Rule,” named after the twelfth-century rabbi who decreed that classes should not exceed forty children. That means elementary school classes can often have as many as thirty-eight or thirty-nine students. Where there are forty students in a grade, though, the same school could suddenly have two classes of twenty. If you do a Hoxby-style analysis and compare the academic performance of one of those big classes with a class of twenty, the small class will do better. That shouldn’t be surprising. Thirty-six or thirty-seven students is a lot for any teacher to handle. Israel is on the left side of the inverted-U curve.

Now think back to Connecticut. In the schools Hoxby looked at, most of the variation was between class sizes in the mid- to low twenties and those in the high teens. When Hoxby says that her study found nothing, what she means is that she could find no real benefit to making classes smaller in that medium range. Somewhere between Israel and Connecticut, in other words, the effects of class size move along the curve to the flat middle—where adding resources to the classroom stops translating into a better experience for children.

Why isn’t there much of a difference between a class of twenty-five students and a class of eighteen students? There’s no question that the latter is easier for the teacher: fewer papers to grade, fewer children to know and follow. But a smaller classroom translates to a better outcome only if teachers change their teaching style when given a lower workload. And what the evidence suggests is that in this midrange, teachers don’t necessarily do that. They just work less. This is only human nature. Imagine that you are a doctor and you suddenly learn that you’ll see twenty patients on a Friday afternoon instead of twenty-five, while getting paid the same. Would you respond by spending more time with each patient? Or would you simply leave at six-thirty instead of seven-thirty and have dinner with your kids?

Now for the crucial question. Can a class be too small, the same way a parent can make too much money? I polled a large number of teachers in the United States and Canada and asked them that question, and teacher after teacher agreed that it can.

Here’s a typical response:

My perfect number is eighteen: that’s enough bodies in the room that no one person needs to feel vulnerable, but everyone can feel important. Eighteen divides handily into groups of two or three or six—all varying degrees of intimacy in and of themselves. With eighteen students, I can always get to each one of them when I need to. Twenty-four is my second favorite number—the extra six bodies make it even more likely that there will be a dissident among them, a rebel or two to challenge the status quo. But the trade-off with twenty-four is that it verges on having the energetic mass of an audience instead of a team. Add six more of them to hit thirty bodies and we’ve weakened the energetic connections so far that even the most charismatic of teachers can’t maintain the magic all the time.

And what about the other direction? Drop down six from the perfect eighteen bodies and we have the Last Supper. And that’s the problem. Twelve is small enough to fit around the holiday dinner table—too intimate for many high schoolers to protect their autonomy on the days they need to, and too easily dominated by the bombast or bully, either of whom could be the teacher herself. By the time we shrink to six bodies, there is no place to hide at all, and not enough diversity in thought and experience to add the richness that can come from numbers.

The small class is, in other words, potentially as difficult for a teacher to manage as the very large class. In one case, the problem is the number of potential interactions to manage. In the other case, it is the intensity of the potential interactions. As another teacher memorably put it, when a class gets too small, the students start acting “like siblings in the backseat of a car. There is simply no way for the cantankerous kids to get away from one another.”

Here’s another comment from a high school teacher. He had recently had a class of thirty-two and hated it. “When I face a class that large, the first thought that I have is ‘Damn it, every time I collect something to mark, I am going to spend hours of time here at the school when I could be with my own kids.’” But he didn’t want to teach a class of fewer than twenty either:

The life source of any class is discussion, and that tends to need a certain critical mass to get going. I teach classes right now with students who simply don’t discuss anything, and it is brutal at times. If the numbers get too low, discussion suffers. That seems counterintuitive because I would think that the quiet kids who would hesitate to speak in a class of thirty-two would do so more readily in a class of sixteen. But that hasn’t really been my experience. The quiet ones tend to be quiet regardless. And if the class is too small, among the speakers, you don’t have enough breadth of opinion perhaps to get things really going. There is also something hard to pin down about energy level. A very small group tends to lack the sort of energy that comes from the friction between people.

And a really, really small class? Beware.

I had a class of nine students in grade-twelve Academic French. Sounds like a dream, doesn’t it? It was a nightmare! You can’t get any kind of conversation or discussion going in the target language. It’s difficult to play games to reinforce vocabulary, grammar skills, et cetera. The momentum just isn’t there.

The economist Jesse Levin has done some fascinating work along these same lines, looking at Dutch schoolchildren. He counted how many peers children had in their class—that is, students at a similar level of academic ability—and found that the number of peers had a surprising correlation with academic performance, particularly for struggling students. In other words, if you are a student—particularly a poor student—what you need is to have people around you asking the same questions, wrestling with the same issues, and worrying about the same things as you are, so that you feel a little less isolated and a little more normal.

This is the problem with really small classes, Levin argues. When there are too few students in a room, the chances that children are surrounded by a critical mass of other people like them start to get really low. Taken too far, Levin says, class-size reduction “steals away the peers that struggling students learn from.”

Can you see why Teresa DeBrito was so worried about Shepaug Valley? She is the principal of a middle school, teaching children at precisely the age when they begin to make the difficult transition to adolescence. They are awkward and self-conscious and anxious about  seeming too smart. Getting them to engage, to move beyond simple question-and-answer sessions with their teacher, she said, can be “like pulling teeth.” She wanted lots of interesting and diverse voices in her classrooms, and the kind of excitement that comes from a critical mass of students grappling with the same problem. How do you do that in a half-empty room? “The more students you have,” she continued, “the more variety you can have in those discussions. If it’s too small with kids this age, it’s like they have a muzzle on.” She didn’t say it, but you could imagine her thinking that if someone went and built a massive subdivision on the gently rolling meadow next to the school, she wouldn’t be that unhappy.

***
A half-hour drive up the road from Shepaug Valley, in the town of Lakeville, Connecticut, is a school called Hotchkiss. It is considered one of the premier private boarding schools in the United States. Tuition is almost $50,000 a year. The school has two lakes, two hockey rinks, four telescopes, a golf course, and twelve pianos. And not just any pianos, but, as the school takes pains to point out, Steinway pianos, the most prestigious piano money can buy.6 Hotchkiss is the kind of place that spares no expense in the education of its students. The school’s average class size? Twelve students. The same condition that Teresa DeBrito dreads, Hotchkiss—just up the road—advertises as its greatest asset. “[Our] learning environment,” the school proudly declares, “is intimate, interactive, and inclusive.”

Why does a school like Hotchkiss do something that so plainly makes its students worse off? One answer is that the school isn’t thinking of its students. It is thinking of the parents of its students, who see things like golf courses and Steinway pianos and small classes as evidence that their $50,000 is well spent. But the better answer is that Hotchkiss has simply fallen into the trap that wealthy people and wealthy institutions and wealthy countries—all Goliaths—too often fall into: the school assumes that the kinds of things that wealth can buy always translate into real-world advantages. They don’t, of course. That’s the lesson of the inverted-U curve. It is good to be bigger and stronger than your opponent. It is not so good to be so big and strong that you are a sitting duck for a rock fired at 150 miles per hour. Goliath didn’t get what he wanted, because he was too big. The man from Hollywood was not the parent he wanted to be, because he was too rich. Hotchkiss is not the school it wants to be, because its classes are too small. We all assume that being bigger and stronger and richer is always in our best interest.

***
The definitive analysis of the many hundreds of class-size studies was done by the educational economist Eric Hanushek, The Evidence on Class Size. Hanushek says, “Probably no aspect of schools has been studied as much as class size. This work has been going on for years, and there is no reason to believe that there is any consistent relationship with achievement.”

***
The logic of the inverted-U curve is that the same strategies that work really well at first stop working past a certain point, and that’s exactly what many criminologists argue happens with punishment.